There has also been a great deal of work on art and the emotions. All these contextual considerations need to be recognized to properly understand a building and, hence, to properly evaluate it. In addition to the views already discussed, some argue that all artworks should be identified with the act of creating an object of appreciation rather than with the object itself (Currie 1989, Davies 2004). This also is the conception of artistic value as expressed in Dickie (1988), and is, at least, implicit in a number of papers by Nol Carroll collected in Carroll (2001b, 562). Perhaps there are conceptual artworks that simply try to present a thought or idea. This rejection began with the more sweeping thought that all attempts to define art are misguided because necessary and sufficient conditions do not exist capable of supporting a real definition of art. This is because such vividness depends on other perceptual color properties such as saturation and brightness. The flawed aspect of those commitments makes a positive contribution to the artistic (aesthetic) value of the work. This challenge concerns the way we value objects of aesthetic judgments. We should expect these to be a mixed bag when assessed for truth just as would be various hypotheses tested in a laboratory. I doubt that concepts are prototypes, while admitting we might have prototypes. Questions 1. Its invalid. Theories of Art Today. Is it not then true both that the work expresses that emotion, but the best hypothesis of an ideal audience is that the composer did not intend to express it?10 There are a number of ways of escaping this dilemma. In the most austere versions, one ignores the fact that one is perceiving a certain kind of object and one is encouraged to merely take note of colors, shapes, and sounds conceptualized only in terms of their sensory qualities. Is it an artistic virtue to allow us to vividly imagine the life of such a person and to admire it, even while being amused? Young, James. Similarly, formalism in nature appreciation claims that the proper appreciation of nature should be confined to properties or appearances immediately available to the senses, without reliance on background knowledge such as that provided by science. There is a large literature on the cognitive benefits of some kinds of music. The time of year is represented by tree branches with yellow leaves or none or few (in which I find just a hint of humor if one thinks of this as a reference to an aging head) shivering in (shake against) the cold. A Counter-example to Levinsons Historical Theory of Art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 48:15758. The opponent of the impression view, or of aesthetic properties per se, may reply that sometimes the evaluative reaction and the impression are inseparable. That is simply not the case. The widely shared intention is to create an object for public consumption, an object available to a public absent the artist. This is because, although people have intentions and things dont, peoples intentions transmit properties to the things those people do and make that are ontologically dependent on those intentions. Do literary works such as poems and novels have meanings, and is it an aim of interpretation to discover what these meanings are? Dickie, George. Argues that actual intentions are an essential component of work meaning. There can be an alternative explanation for the lack of complete agreement, and one will be mentioned below. Call this property of ordinary seeing existence. However, if the painting is representational, Representation: Depiction 187 then in some sense I see more. Notice the standard here is not correctness. However, many of the items on the original list require no more than ordinary abilitiessuch as the second order perceptual properties. It was discussed by Aristotle among other ancient philosophers and is a standard problem in contemporary metaphysics. The same could be true for some of the values derived from its fictional dimension if they too are commonly aimed at or sought after by author or audience.5 At this point, then, we are faced with starkly contrasting views about the value works possess as art. (Elements of philosophy) Includes bibliographical references and index. This is how elegant differs from a nonevaluative aesthetic term like sad. When I say that the painting is sad, I am reporting an impression, claiming it to be valid, but not reporting approval or disapproval. 1959. Seeing-In This chapter will be concerned with perceptual/experiential theories and examine whether they are adequate to define depiction and explain its important characteristics. My initial suggestion is that there may not be a uniform answer to this question. 2. (I followed this understanding in the previous section.) 2. We may feel that they must be, but we really dont know. The resolution to the puzzle of subjective universality remains elusive. 1980. Exemplifying the best in a style, being influential, and Artistic Value 225 being original are all historically (in particular, art-historically) valuable properties. Thus, the view implies that we imagine that the characters, the narrators, and we ourselves all inhabit the fictional world we are imagining, though we and the narrator may be temporally and/or spatially distant from the events being narrated and in no position to intervene in them. But to be useful in the pursuit of knowledge or understanding, they must have sufficient generality to apply beyond the work, to recurring features of the world. To the first question, the answer is that we typically have little interest in the phenomenal appearance of painting themselves (though we may be interested the phenomenal appearances some painting representsa very different matter). The Semantics of Fictional Names. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 78, 12848. Liverpool Hope University Press. Appreciation and the Natural Environment. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 37:26775. London: Routledge, chap. The most abstract or general of these prudential norms tells us that if you choose a goal, you ought to also choose to do the things necessary (the means) to achieve the goal. Musical Works as Eternal Types. British Journal of Aesthetics 40: 42440. Consider a work like the epic poem the Iliad or any number of other works from ancient Greek literature. The set of such characteristics constructs the implied author (Robinson 1985, Walton 1979). This book does not simply present a controversy in its current state of play, but instead demonstrates a philosophical mind at work helping to advance the issue toward a solution. Are there circumstances in which the means by which a work is produced bear on the ethical value of the work? In one sense, a claim to fictionality can be a claim to nonexistence. The Aesthetics of Photographic Transparency. Mind 112:43348. Aaron Ridley builds an evocation theory of expressiveness on the fact that music presents emotion characteristics in appearance. Expressiveness in Poetry Unlike pure, instrumental music, as we noted above, it is virtually impossible to read a lyric poem without taking it to be uttered by someone. Lets call this the experience-based cognitive insight argument (ECIA), a stronger version of the original cognitive insight argument.12 We can set it out more formally as follows: 1. We shall be concerned with two questions that arise from the thesis that the ethical value of an artwork can be a proper part of its artistic value and one that is distinct from the works aesthetic value. 10. Call this expressivism. It might be sufficient that a building be made with an ambition to aesthetic excellence, The Value of Architecture 283 originality, or creative wrestling with earlier architecture, even if it does not achieve success. . 1994. Expression across the Arts Let us begin by making two preliminary observations about expressive phenomena across the arts: a lyric poem expressing a certain sort of grief, a passage of music expressing gloom and despair, a painting expressing anxietyinduced terror. Finally we have rejected arguments that the usual ways in which ethical and aesthetic value interact can become inverted. The End of an Institutional Definition of Art. British Journal of Aesthetics 26:12432. You sit there entranced until there is nothing, not even a visible ridgeline. Aesthetic experience isnt just any pleasurable sensuous experience. Unfortunately, there are other ways to interpret this remark. The claim that aesthetic experience is disinterested, that it involves the free play of the understanding and imagination, that it is characterized by subjective universality, are just as obscure, but now even more questionable, than before. Of course, to say this is to oversimplify. However, is this capacity to provide valuable experience the only feature of the painting that makes it valuable? Significant form: Form that gives special value to and is a defining feature of artworks according to a theory of art proposed by Clive Bell. Such properties can be perceived in the work and their presence in a work does not require any specific process of creation. Logic A typical cause of the increase in particles is air pollution. This is an aesthetic aim since the imaginative engagement with such a world is a central aspect of its aesthetic experience. It presents an overview of three main theories in the philosophy of interpretation: actual intentionalism, hypothetical intentionalism, and value maximization theories. I argued against the second claim by pointing out that, unless this is a covert way of formulating HI, the view fails to provide a condition sufficient for expression. We are apt to be more unsure about the latter than the former, since instrumental value is many headed and ill-defined (Budd 1995, 6). A defense of the strong twofoldness condition on seeing-in against the objection based on trompe loeil. London: Routledge. 1995. The invention of photography challenges the representational ideal in painting, at least if that is regarded as the increasingly accurate, lifelike depiction of what we see. Critical pluralism: The idea that artworks can have several equally acceptable, non-combinable interpretations. 2004. Notes 1. Scruton (1983) argues that photographs do not represent their subjects. Gendler, Tamar Szabo, and Karson Kovakovich. Does embracing the constructivist paradigm give us reason to believe that artworks and the like lack essences? But it is a consideration at least when it is intrinsic to the aims of a genre. Hypothetical Intentionalism The alternative is known as hypothetical intentionalism (HI). Lets summarize the state of the argument so far. So he moves to a German city. When we think about the appreciation of art, we find that beauty is one, but only one, among the several things that we value. One can even extend this to literature, which pursued expressivist goals from the advent of romantic poetry through the invention of stream of consciousness and other techniques to express interiority. So there is no reason to think that a commitment to such a flawed outlook is essential for realizing those aims of a work that we value. An imaginary bird seen in a virtual reality show, or a birdlike artifact, no matter how perfectly resembling the real thing, would not deliver the same experience, or rather, possibly could, only if I misjudge these to be living (hence existing) creatures. First, we are being asked to distort the object of appreciation by imagining (though not actually believing) it is an artifact when it is no such thing. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Here are some lines from the poem. You can only form beliefs or hypotheses about what I intend or what someone might intend. Then they would be open to the objection that there are at least equally good alternatives provided by the other models. 1997a. 1970. . . I find it very plausible for general-value properties, and more problematic for the remaining properties. A part of a song would be its refrain, but not a complete performance of that song. In the cases we are looking at, there are two distinct but noteworthy reactions among observers with the newly acquired knowledge of the effects of purple loosestrife and the causes of sunsets. In fact, the purpose of a work of fiction, or one of its purposes, can be to convey certain truths. It falls into three parts. Family Resemblances and Generalization Concerning the Arts. American Philosophical Quarterly 2:219228. Combines a critique of Carroll and Gaut with a defense of his own version of the affective response argument. Fishing rods are instruments; works of art are not. . There is another problem with the pretense view, which is not fixable. No print, reel, electronic copy, or screening is the film. Even works that have minimal aesthetic payoffs, like the previously mentioned ready-mades, have to be encountered at least in photographs to be fully appreciated, because part of their power as a source of questions about the nature of art derives from the full realization of their aesthetically trivial nature. Second, this is not the only way religion and religious practices are valuable. Since Danto is not explicit about endorsing a particular theory of artistic value, we should be cautious about attributing a purely cognitive view to him. This idea works well for lots of poetry. Extending Art Historically. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 51:41124. They tell us that something is good or ought to be done. If we think that in these poems, the poets Carruth and Shakespeare, respectively, are addressing someonein Carruths case, his audience perhaps, or, in Shakespeares, his loverthen we would not think of it as fiction. The perceptual requirement operates on the level of hearing emotion in music, and there is nothing about HI that precludes such hearing. Such buildings, while capable of being perfectly pedestrian, offer great scope to blending a high degree of the aesthetic with the functional and were made with this expectation. 1965. But what about after you have acquired this knowledge? Thus we may encounter a stone with lovely colors or an unusual shape or smoothness and appreciate the stone for these pleasing qualities. Aesthetics. Arent many works of music, architecture, or ceramics, and even some abstract or decorative painting, examples of works of art, which are yet about nothing? It would be beyond the scope of even a highly sophisticated introductory text to discuss all of these views. Consider a clear case of pretense. However, in one case the experience is valued for its own sake, in the other it is not. First, how should we understand this sort of ethical-artistic value (as I will call the ethical value of a work that is as aspect of its value as art)? For example, most people dont think that a works monetary value is part of its artistic value. 3. 2000. 6. Oxford: Oxford University Press. For one thing, it is far from clear that all valuable works have cognitive value, or that, among works that have it, this is always where their chief value lies. For example, when there is disagreement whether a musical work is powerful the issue will probably not be settled by pointing to its piercing poignancy or even its subtle expression of deep sadness, because these are all evaluative claims that are likely to be disputed. Do you favor realism or antirealism about aesthetic properties? Representation in one of its broader senses is a pervasive, though not invariable, feature of artworks, but it occurs just as commonly outside of art. Finally, determining which properties of artworks contribute to artistic value is an empirical matter based on the aims of artists and the expectations of audiences. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. One is the pluralism about value, understanding, and appreciation mentioned above. Cognition overviews theories of the cognitive value of literature, that is, its ability to furnish readers with knowledge and insight. But its not clear that there is anything more than a verbal difference at this point in saying it is pity (that differs in some ways from the standard case) and saying it is not pity (where the difference from the standard case is what makes us say it is not pity). Here we move beyond issues of the aesthetic and of value, but without leaving those issues behind entirely. cit. 6. Beauty and genealogy of art theory 3. Against taking it as a sufficient condition for being art, various examples have been offered where the requisite intention is purportedly present, but the item in question is arguably not an artwork. They would be just as objective and fact-based as any conceptual judgment. Further Reading Currie, Gregory. See subjective universality Urmson, J. O., 4, 5, 48, 64, 445n4 value, 62n5; aesthetic, ixxi, 27, 32, 41, 46, 5358, 62n7, 65, 6772, 7577, 8587, 88, 91n13, 262, 271n3, 28183, 28991; artistic, 8, 33, 101, 111, 22146, 248, 264, 26870, 275, 28081, 290; cognitive value, 7, 33, 169, 226 228, 233, 23639, 248, 251, 26468, 271n3; ethical-artistic, 24856, 257, 26263, 27071; intrinsic, 52, 5358, 225, 226, 228, 145n7, 289; instrumental, 6, 54 5658, 62n7, 222, 223, 22628, 23031, 242, 256, 289 Van Inwagen, P., 170 Vermazen, B.
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